Bereavement and Grief: Counsellling and Therapy

Bereavement and grief impacts people on many levels: emotionally, biologically, sexually, economically, socially, and spiritually. In essence, all aspects of a bereaved person’s life are affected by grief. The lack of emphasis on the personal toll of therapy may lead to unprepared therapists; conversely, having a personal preparedness for dealing with death issues, rather than simply being trained in tactics, seems to predict more effective work with grieving persons and improved self-efficacy on the part of therapists.This paper provides extensive research on the bereavement and grief therapies. First, it examines various definitions of grief and bereavement and differences between them. Then a variety of theories related to these processes are scrutinised and presented. Then different therapeutical approaches coping with bereavement and grief are explored. After that subject of this study is examined through lenses of two classical psychotherapy theories: Person-Centred and Cognitive Therapy. Finally, an integrated approach based on previous ones is presented.Some conclusive remarks are also added. Definition of Bereavement and Grief Morgan (2000) and traced the words bereavement and grief back to the French word ravir and even further, to its root, the old Frisian word reva, which means to steal or to rob. Thus, in experiencing loss, one feels an acute sense of deprivation of a significant person in one’s life. Morgan (2000) stated that grief is the price we pay for love; it is the price we pay for security; it is the price we pay for a sense of warmth and for a sense that our lives have meaning (p.1). Simply expressed, â€Å"grief is the little kid inside of us protesting. Grief is that little kid inside of us thinking that if I yell loudly enough, if I scream loudly enough maybe my loved one will come back† (p. 1). While the terms grief and bereavement may be viewed as synonymous, some authors make a distinction between them, generally defining bereavement as â€Å"the objective situation of having lost someone significant† (Stroebe, Hansson, Stroebe, & Schut 2001, p. 6).Grief is defined as the reaction to bereavement, the â€Å"severe and prolonged distress that is a response to the loss of an emotionally important figure† (Weiss 2001, p. 47). Parkes (1970) offers a more detailed definition: Grief, it seems, is a complex and time-consuming process in which a person gradually changes his view of the world and the places and habits by means of which he orientates and relates to it. It is a process of realization, of making psychologically real an external event which is not desired and for which coping plans do not exist (p.465). While grief is the internal experience of thoughts and feelings in response to the loss, bereavement can be described as the loss itself, and the process that expresses the internal experience of grief (Worden 2002). Thus, a person may be bereaved in having experienced a los s, but not directly experiencing grief, as in the stage of denial (Worden 2002). Bereavement is characterized most often by emotions of sadness, anger, guilt, loneliness and insecurity (Kubler-Ross 1969). Becker (1973) asserted his belief in three possible responses to death.The first response is to deny the reality of death, to act as though it will not happen or is not important. The second response is to become mentally ill, to engage with death in a way that disregards societal and legal boundaries. The third response is to be heroic, to live life fully and to leave a legacy that upholds life and that honours one’s existence (Becker, 1973). Original Theories of Bereavement Morgan (2000) stated that grief impacts people on many levels: emotionally, biologically, sexually, economically, socially, and spiritually. In essence, all aspects of a bereaved person’s life are affected by grief.Freud's (1917) seminal bereavement paper, â€Å"Mourning and Melancholia,† was the first to propose the necessity of doing grief work, which he defined as a cathartic process of reviewing and then severing the psychological bonds to the deceased, in order to create room for a new attachment to a live person; â€Å"a withdrawal of the libido from this object and a displacement of it on to a new one† (p. 249). Stroebe (1992) more recently defined grief work as â€Å"a cognitive process of confronting a loss, of going over the events before and at the time of death, of focusing on memories and working towards detachment from the deceased† (pp. 19-20).Freud (1917) compared melancholia, which he considered pathological, to the normal process of mourning; he argued that while both share the same features of dejection, loss of interest, inhibition, and loss of capacity to love, melancholia was distinguished by its punitive and painful view of the self, during which the grieving person expects punishment (a belief which may reach delusional proportio ns). â€Å"In mourning it is the world which has become poor and empty; in melancholia it is the ego itself (p. 246). The pathology becomes the conflict within the ego, as opposed to the normal struggle to reconcile the loss of the object.Freud introduced ambivalence as a necessary precursor to melancholia, implying that the quality of one's prior relationship to the deceased was an important factor. The ambivalence toward the lost object created a maelstrom in the grieving individual, who struggles to both detach and remain attached simultaneously. His assumption was that all people need to do the â€Å"work† of grieving, where â€Å"every single one of the memories and situations of expectancy which demonstrate the libido's attachment to the lost object is met by the reality that the object no longer exists† (Freud 1917, p. 255).Freud believed that the ego then became â€Å"free and uninhibited† (p. 245) once the grief work was completed, and ready to form a new attachment. While these were theoretical constructs, based on Freud's observations of grieving persons, they were assumed to be representative of the process of grieving and had implications for the bereavement field for many decades afterward. Freud himself even stressed that further study was needed to identify those who may be predisposed to develop melancholia, and that his paper was actually not addressing grieving, per se; he was exploring dimensions of depression.The distinction between normal and pathological grieving was further explicated by Lindemann (1944), who interviewed 101 bereaved individuals from both an inpatient and outpatient population. Lindemann described the trajectory of normal grief as a fairly comparable phenomenon across patients, characterized by â€Å"(1) somatic distress, (2) preoccupation with the image of the deceased, (3) guilt, (4) hostile reactions, and (5) loss of patterns of conduct† (p. 142).Lindemann observed that it was not unusual for people experiencing a normal grief reaction to resolve the immediate symptoms within four to six weeks with the care of a psychiatrist. Lindemann (1944) viewed morbid grief reactions as a distortion of the normal grieving process. These pathological responses included a delay or distorted reaction to the loss (i. e. , overactivity, or no observable change in affect), somatic reactions that mimic the illness of the deceased, hostility against those perceived as responsible (i.e. , the loved one's physician), prolonged isolation from social supports, and intense self-persecution and desire to punish oneself, including suicidal ideation. Lindemann (1944) defined grief work as â€Å"emancipation from the bondage to the deceased, readjustment to the environment in which the deceased is missing, and the formation of new relationships† (p. 143). He believed that an obstacle to the successful resolution of grief was the avoidance of expressed emotional distress.Lindemann seemed perhaps overly optimistic by stating that a person could be assisted through a morbid grief reaction in eight to ten interview sessions, yet this may have been seen as a welcome departure from Freud's (1917) statement that mourning is â€Å"long-drawn-out and gradual† (p. 256). Furthermore, this could have been a precursor to the studies supporting the profile of the resilient individual (discussed in greater detail below). Anderson (1949) described the symptomology of 100 hospitalised bereaved patients under his care, who exhibited anxiety, hysteria, agitated and anergic depression, and hypomania.Anderson clearly endorsed the pathology of a delayed grief reaction, stating, â€Å"It is obvious that such states of mind will pervert, distort and prolong the natural process of grief in reference to patients who were unable to cry or who appeared elated. Anderson (1949) also believed the necessity of understanding the bereaved patient's relationship to the deceased, and endorsed that an ambivalent attachment would produce a conflicted and prolonged bereavement process.

Hul: -Strategies

Due to the continuous efforts of the top shampoo brands in India penetration of shampoos in urban areas is almost 100%. As far as penetration of shampoo in the rural areas is concerned it has risen by almost 18% in the current scenario. the shampoo market in India is valued at Rs 4. 5 bn with the penetration level at 13% only. The market is expected to increase due to lower duties and aggressive marketing by players Shampoo is also available in a sachet, which is affordable and makes upto 40% of the total shampoo sale. The Indian shampoo market is characterised by a twin-benefit platform: cosmetic and anti-dandruff. It is basically an upper middle class product, as more than 50% of the consumers use ordinary toilet soap for washing hair. While the awareness level is high, the penetration level is very low even in the metros which is only 30%. Urban markets account for 80% of the total shampoo market, The penetration level is rapidly increasing due to decline in excise duty, which was 120% in 1993 to 30% currently. Hindustan Unilever Ltd led hair care sales in 2010, with a 19% value share, followed by Dabur India Ltd India, Marico Ltd and Procter & Gamble Home Products Ltd India. These four companies accounted for almost 49% of value, by virtue of their strong brands in shampoos and conditioners. Consumer goods giant Hindustan Unilever today said it is looking at cornering over 13% of the shampoo market next fiscal with its leading hair care brand Dove in the next fiscal. â€Å"We have already launched these products globally. Today we have launched it in this market. With this we expect to gain 13-15% market share in FY13,† HUL General Manager, Hair Care Business, Piyush Jain, told PTI here. He further said, â€Å"the company entered the hair care segment in 2007 and since then we have achieved a market share of 10%. † The shampoo market is estimated to be around Rs 3,500 crore. To achieve the target, the company today launched its Dove nourishing oil care range of products — oil care shampoo, daily treatment conditioner, oil care weekly vita-oils repair mask and oil care vita-oil serum — in the premium category which contains a blend of vita oils ncluding coconut, almond and sunflower oils. Dove, which initially started as soap brand, has diversified into the hair care and antiperspirant segments recently. we have achieved a market share of 10 percent. † The shampoo market is estimated to be around Rs 3,500 crore. (IBN Live oct 2011) But if HUL, the leader in shampoos with a market share of around 44% through its Sunsilk, Clinic Plus, Clinic All Clear and Dove brands, was to respond to P&G’s move with share of 24%. apr2011

Analysis Of Kill A Mockingbird Essay -- To Kill a Mockingbird, White

The book notably opens with an immediate instance of self-delusion: tricking the reader into believing that Maycomb is just an old, ordinary, and quiet town through description of the town’s history, when in reality, it was teeming with prejudice and racism. The reader immediately leans about this sleepy southern town where â€Å"a day was twenty-four hours long but seemed longer. There was no hurry, for there was nowhere to go, nothing to buy and no money to buy it with, nothing to see outside the boundaries of Maycomb County† (Lee 6), however the reader slowly begins to realize that there’s more to the town than what meets the eye, as â€Å" it was a time of vague optimism for some of the people: Maycomb County had recently been told that it had nothing to fear but fear itself† (Lee 6). Up until this point, any first-time reader was probably thinking of a dreary, yet pleasant town where nothing really happened. However, this allusion to Roosevelt’ s fireside chats places this narrative in the 1930’s, and this is the detail that causes the reader to put the two ideas together. Any time before the late 60’s in a southern town does not bode well on the topic of acceptance, especially the issue of racism. This skepticism is later confirmed through Mr. Radley using a racial slur to accuse a black man for trespassing on his territory. Overall, the beginning of the book is a great example of self-delusion in order t... ... middle of paper ... ...tside the courthouse after the trial, and Jem was instantly reminded of the verdict: Jem was suddenly furious. He leaped off the bed, grabbed me by the collar and shook me. â€Å"I never wanta hear about that courthouse again, ever, ever, you hear me? You hear me? Don’t you ever say one word to me about it again, you hear? Now go on!† (Lee 331). In the face of bigotry, Jem initially refused to accept reality. He refused to admit that, even though Maycomb was the town he grew up in, even though it was where he called home, he was completely surrounded by injustice. Jem deluded himself rather than accepting the fact that the world is a lot harsher, crueler and just more unfair than he thought. It’s a common theme across the book that people can’t accept the truth and choose to ignore it. And although the book takes place in the 1930’s, this self-deception is still present.

History and Nature of Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

History and Nature of Crime - Essay Example This leads to the inconsistency in reporting between jurisdiction, region and states. Klaus (1981, p 68) notes that the UCR only reports the crimes reported to the police. One can clearly observe whether crime rates are going up or decreasing with the use of UCR. The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is the leading source of information on criminal victimization on the number and types of the offense not reported to police. The NCVS objectives are to get comprehensive information about the victims, punishment of crime, determine the number of unreported crimes to the police. It provides unvarying trial of selected crimes and allows comparison over time and residents types. The NCVS was implemented to supplement the UCR. Schmalleger (2011, p 150) says that the main reporting programs in the U.S are; National Incident Based Reporting System (NIBRS), Uniform Crime reports (UCR), and the National Crime Reporting Survey (NCRS). Each crime reporting program has its own pros and cons towards the criminals and victims as well as the law enforcement present. UCR usually has detailed administrative information about criminal deeds that have been forwarded to the (FBI) from the law enforcement agencies where the crime was first reported to. Some of the pros of UCR programs are that people can be up to date on the crimes that take place in certain areas as well as, the types of crimes. The disadvantage is that the program only shows the offences that have been recorded by the law enforcement authorities leaving out the unreported. National Incident Based Reporting system (NIBRS) is an incident-based reporting method used in the U.S, to report crimes. Local and federal agencies create NIBRS information from their report management systems when an incident comes to their attention (Bottomley & Coleman, 1981). The data taken includes the nature of offence, characteristic off the victim and the lawbreaker

Healthy Living City Promotion Plan Term Project Essay

Healthy Living City Promotion Plan Term Project - Essay Example e communities and their audiences, the cultural Arts and Heritage Plan will articulate the vision and strategies for the advancement of culture in the city of Penticton . According to Hello BC (2014), the city of Penticton is rich with cultural heritage and arts which over the recent years have been neglected as result of the proliferation of modern technology and globalization. The promotional plan hence provides a framework for the assessment of the current situation of the culture, art and heritage in the city in relation to the economic boom in the city. Indeed, like every major city, Penticton has been characterized with unprecedented changes in terms of economic, political, social and environmental domains. It is hence prudent that relevant authorities, stakeholders and city dwellers undertake activities aimed at preserving, restoring and promoting the cultural heritage of the city beyond its local environs. As Canadas most entrepreneurial city, Penticton city was profoundly known for its historical heritage dating back to 7000 years ago (Penticton 2014a). Penticton town was formed in 1906 when the Southern Okanagan Land Company established an irrigation scheme. The town gained its city status in 1948 after the Second World War. Penticton city further became notable for its wine industry and tourist sites which were opened up by the completion of the Hope- Princeton highway in 1949 (Penticton 2014a). The cultural heritage culminated with the opening of the Peach Bowl center in 1965 (Penticton 2014a) Despite declining emphasis on the cultural and art heritage in the city, there has been notable improvement and promotion of cultural heritage over past 10 years (News 2014). Advancement in the management of museums, archives and heritage sites has been due to the formulation of key national plans and strategies aimed at conserving the cultural heritage of Canada. The strategic plans include The Museum Sustainability Plan (2005), the Arts Investment

Despite unprecedented expenditure into the NHS in England, Essay - 1

Despite unprecedented expenditure into the NHS in England, inequalities in health are widening for some outcomes. Discuss - Essay Example et information from a need-based formula that provides equal access level to health services for the population at the same risk, so as to prevent or minimise avoidable risk. The health department is the one that allocates resources to the NHS. The NHS develops a formula for distributing the funds to the neediest PCTs. Many of these PCTs do not receive their full allocations, hence, the need for the quick action by the government so as to ensure that PCTs receive the right amount it requires. Health inequality has become a key issue in England. The heath department is responsible for resource allocation to the NHS. Despite the improved health of all groups of people in England, health inequalities between social classes have widened by a bigger percentage over the recent years. The rich people’s health is improving at a drastic rate as compared to that of the poor. Health inequality is not only among the financial social classes, but also exists amongst the elderly, the mentally ill and those with disabilities. All these groups of people have been found to receive worse health services than the normal population (Earle and Sharp, 2007). The causes of health inequalities are normally complicated or intense they may include mostly lifestyle factors such as nutrition, exercise among others and also broader determinants such as housing poverty, education to name just a few. How ever there are those inequalities that are UN avoidable. These originate from three broad variations: the quality of health services, access to health services and services beyond the control of health systems, for example, wealth lifestyle, (Bourdieu 1999), genetics (Earle and Sharp, 2007)among others. It is evident that most population suffering these health inequalities does so in all the three accounts, they access poor health services moreover they suffer external disadvantages. A poor quality health service for the disadvantaged population is mostly a management problem. The right

The music of Stravinsky Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The music of Stravinsky - Term Paper Example Due to the University’s closure following a bloody Sunday, he could not take his final exams and could only receive a diploma. As a result he chose to consntrate in music and was taught private lessons on music by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov who almost acted like his second father. Stravisky got married to Katerina Nossenko, his cousin and despite the Orthordox church’s opposition on such marriages, they finaly managed to tie the not on January 23, 1906. Thye gave birth to four kids that is Fyodor born in 1907, Ludmilla born in 1908, Soulima(1910) and Maria Milena(1913) according to Straus (22). By the time he finished hi studies Stravinsky was already a excellent amateur pianist and also could play along with the singer.He was also an expert in Russsian, Italian and French opera. Stravinsky’s best friend was Stephan Mitusov who was a step son of a prince and who helped him advance his career in music. Mitusov would translate French poems and Stravinsky would make mu sic from them. The idea of objectivity is a central theme both in life and in compositions of Stranvinsky.Stranvinsky grew up I environment where he was exposed to music, literature and art given that his father was a known operatic bass.At the age of nine Stravinsky started his piano classes and he studied counterpoint as well as music theory. Rimsky adviced him to compose on his own and gave him composition and orchestra lessons, which helped him, begin his career in music composition. ... The aggressive rythms, abrasive harmonies and the shifting meters he applied in this ballet on ritual pagan sacrifice remained in the memories of many listeners. This became Stravinsky’s first work which permanently placed him at the international repertory. The World War 1 totally disrupted Strvinsky life hence his compositions were disrupted. However, he continued with his compositions but did it smaller scale productions. After the war, he settled in France and his style of composition started to change as now he was inspired by eighteenth century music of Europe. For thirty years he composed using neo-classical style during which he experienced a spiritual transformation which encouraged him to compose liturgical and sacred works. By the time he was in his thirties, Stravinsky found that his music was mostly demanded in the US.At the same period he had lost his mother, daughter and wife in a span of two years. While in Eurpoe, due to condition of war, Stravinsky could not compose held the position of the chairperson of poetry in Harvard. He later married his mistress, Vera de Bosset who he had dated for a long time. They settled in Hollyhood where he started to compose The Rake’s progress. While he was still composing The Rake’s Progress, he came across Robert Craft who later became Stravinsky’s musical aide.This relationship was significant as Craft managed to encourage Stravinsky to create interest in twelve-one techniques which he initially disliked. They also manage to publish co-authored books ewhich explored the musical views of Stranvisky.After completing the Rakes Progress his music compositions took another form which resulted from intergrating the twelve-one techniques in his language of composition. Through this

S.M.A.R.T Goals Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

S.M.A.R.T Goals - Coursework Example Goal: I will look for the organization’s hiring and recruitment policy, and find out what the organization does to hire and retain its employees by week 6. From week 1 to week four, I shall work on reviewing the recruitment and hiring policy of the organization. I will visit the organization and see how the recruitment and hiring process is normally carried out. I will also carry out some interviews among the staff of the organization to find out how they are motivated to remain in the organization. What I learned/ overall goal accomplishment: I have learned that the hiring and recruitment process is very methodological. I have also learned that employers have to not only hire the best employees; they also have to work hard to retain them. Goal: I will find out from the organization’s policies what measures are in place to take care of employee problem and what the organization does to help employees deal with their problems by week 6. How Has this changed my behavior/ attitude: I have come to appreciate that employers should be good managers in all aspects of the word. They should be there to offer guidance and correct errant employees when the need arises. How was the goal met? I had to convince the managers to allow me to talk about their disciplinary policies with them and with their employees. I also went through these policies so that I could understand how the organization treats its employees who have problems. Barriers in meeting my learning outcomes: Although I was able to accomplish my goal, I faced some challenges such as lack of substantive information from the employees.

Respone artical Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Respone artical - Essay Example This focus necessarily detracts from some of the better known artists that have gained renowned based upon their overall appeal and artistry. Seemingly all too often, individuals that review music will disparage popular music to such a great degree that they fail to recognize that some aspects of it, or at the very least certain artists, demand a level of attention; due to the fact that their success is ultimately the result of the fact that many individuals have come to appreciate their music and thereby gives them a level of credence. Additionally, the piece focuses almost entirely on R&B, rap/hip-hop, folk, and a few other genres; hardly inclusive of the full range of music that has been represented over the past four years. Essentially, the qualms of this author with the listing are of course subjective; however, any number of individuals might agree, disagree, love or detest the listing based upon their own musical

African American Essay Example for Free

African American Essay James Baldwin once said, â€Å"I am what time, circumstance, history, have made of me, certainly, but I am also so much more than that. So are we all. † When the subject of race comes up, I feel like that quote is very meaningful. According to class lecture, race is an arbitrary social classification of clearly bounded categories based on skin color which corresponds to no biological reality. To be able to understand race today, a person should have a background on the history of race. According to the American Anthropological Association, by the 1600s, English colonists had established a system of indentured servitude that included both Europeans and Africans. But by the time of Bacon’s Rebellion the status of Africans began to change. Servants who once had an opportunity for freedom following servitude were relegated to a life of permanent slavery in the colonies. Thomas Jefferson was influential in the idea of race with a biological and social hierarchy. He stated that, â€Å"blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time and circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments both of body and mind. Not only did people begin to base their opinions on Thomas Jefferson’s statement, but when Carolus Linnaeus developed a biological classification system and the German scientist Johann Blumenbach introduced a race-based classification of humans, the concept of race expanded and whites saw themselves as superior. I feel that even though race is so deeply embedded into our lives, and it also appears to be the natural order of things, it is not a useful way to talk about human variation. Skin color alone does not provide any reliable information about at person’s race, culture, or susceptibility to disease. Ryan A. Brown and George J. Armelagos in the review, Apportionment of Racial Diversity, makes a good point by saying, â€Å"A single trait such as skin color will result in a classification system that is easily determined. Add another trait and classification becomes a more difficult task, and there usually are groups that cannot be classified. † For too long people have been basing human variation on a person’s race. Many people are guilty of simply looking at an individual and grouping them by their skin color. The sorting exercise on the PBS website confirms this. When I completed the exercise, the results said that I only had grouped 3 individuals in the right group. I was using appearance and appearance only to classify the individuals. Appearance doesn’t always tell a person about someone’s ancestry of self-identity. It’s hard to make any accurate predictions based on appearance alone. According to the Me, My Race, and I reading on the PBS website, I realized that whites and nonwhites had very different things to say. A Caucasian individual stated, â€Å"race does not affect his life so he doesn’t dwell on it. † It is quite different for nonwhites. An African American male stated that he feels as if people automatically perceive him as a robber. An Asian said she was expected to be good at math and sciences, just because of the way she looked. According to the Why Genes Don’t Count (for Racial Differences in Health) article, Human variation is non-concordant. â€Å"Traits tend to vary independently of other traits. Race classifications vary, therefore, by the traits used in the classification. † For example, a classification based on the sickle cell trait might include equatorial Africans, Greeks, and Turks. Sickle cell is not a â€Å"black† disease. According to AAA, â€Å"Contrary to popular perception, the gene variant that causes sickle cell disease evolved as a result of its surprising upside – malaria resistance. The gene variant for sickle cell disease is related to malaria, not skin color. † There is no possibility for consistency. Because skin color correlates with only a few other phenotype traits such as hair and eye color, it is true that â€Å"race is only skin deep. † Another reason why I would say race is not a useful way to talk about human variation is the reason that human variation is continuous. Alan H. Goodman, PhD says â€Å"there is no clear place to designate where one race begins and another ends. Skin color, for example, slowly changes from place to place. † Whether than using race to talk about human variation, I think there is a better way to talk about groups of humans. I think the better way to talk about groups of humans is based on culture. In lecture we learned how a person’s ethnic group is the emphasis of cultural construction over genes. Ethnicity is a multifactorial concept including, but not limited to cultural constructs, genetic background, ecological specialization, and self-specialization. According to the article Culture, Not Race, Explains Human Diversity, â€Å"races† are imagined by the public and do not actually exist. If you think about it, ethnicity/culture is such a better way to talk about groups of people rather than grouping according to skin color. Skin color is based simply on appearance, whereas ethnicity/culture brings multiple concepts into play. Mark Nathan Cohen says, â€Å"The anthropological concept of culture can be explained best by an analogy with language. Just as language is more than vocabulary, culture is more than, say art and music. † Culture structures our behavior, thoughts, perceptions, values, goals, morals, and cognitive processes. Mr. Cohen makes a good point by stressing that people should stray from their egocentric ways and look more carefully at what other people are doing and try to understand their behavior in context before judgment. A person’s culture shapes many things once thought determined by biology, including sexuality, aggression, perception, and susceptibility to disease. This exercise of exploring on the websites and reading all the outside readings, did reinforce our classroom discussions. One thing that stood out to me was the fact that we talked about a girl from Lau Lagoon, Solomon Islands who had dark skin but was born with blond hair. This example also came up in our outside reading as an example. This emphasized that skin color does not come with a certain set of hair colors. Another way this exercise reinforced our classroom discussion was that the websites and reading both reinforced the concept that race has no genetic basis. Not one characteristic, trait or gene distinguishes all members of one so-called race from all members of another so-called society. I feel that that was the overall major concept that was learned in both this exercise and classroom lecture. As I was on the PBS website, I came across one of the background reading entitled â€Å"Where Race Lives. † I found this article very interesting because I read that in 1993, â€Å"86% of suburban whites still lived in places with a black population of less than 1%. † This was interesting to me because in 1994 my family moved to what was considered a white suburb. Even though I was only 1 years of age, at the time, my mom told me that we were 1 of the 2 African Americans families living in the neighborhood at the time. We were the only African American family on our street at the time. Today our street has more African American families on it than white families. It is sad to say but as more African American families moved on our street, more white families moved away. All in all, Genes and environments work together to make each person unique. Why just look at a person’s skin color and make judgments, when there is more to a person than their skin color. Characteristics such as skin color, height and susceptibility to disease are determined by complex combinations of genetic traits, environmental factors and cultural experience.

Industrial Disturbances in Cities: Case Study of Nigeria

Industrial Disturbances in Cities: Case Study of Nigeria THE PERCEPTION OF INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES IN NIGERIAN CITIES: A GEOGRAPHICAL APPRAISAL OF  BENIN- CITY A. 0. Atubi Abstract The major aim of this research work is to determine the perception of industrial disturbances by Benin City residents. This refers to the disturbances created by the availability of heavy manufacturing industries around residential areas of the city. For this purpose, a total of 158 residents were sampled, to generate the data for this research. Multiple correlation analysis was used to test for the significance between the perception of residents who live close to industrial establishments and those who live far off. This revealed that 58% of residents in the study area perceive industrial disturbance as caused by industries around their neighbourhood, leaving 42% unaware to ignorance, indifference etc. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistics and chi-square test were also used. The overall findings of this research bring to the fore the fact that a high percentage of Benin-City residents are not aware of industrial disturbances. Introduction Although the level of industrialization in Nigeria is still very low, its growth rate in the recent past has been significant. This growth rate was largely due to the availability of a large investible capital in the mid 70s (owing to oil revenues) and a growing commitment on the part of government to planned economic growth. Industrial growth is not likely to diminish drastically because of the growing awareness of the need to produce most essential commodities locally and more recently the ban slammed by the Federal Government of Nigeria on the importation of goods, which can be produced locally. Consequently, industrial expansion is likely to continue, in spite of, or even because of the present economic depression. The industrial establishments arising from these processes are located within the framework of a low level and primate pattern of urbanization. Industries spring up in tens annually and most of these are located alongside residential areas in most state capitals and urban centres where women spend 3/4 of their time engaging in various economic activities (Uchegbu, 1998). Consequently, the few urban centres in Nigeria have tended to be the monopolistic locations of these industries. There are now more than 3,000 industries of various categories in the country with about half of this number located in Lagos metropolis alone (Uchegbu, 1998). Perhaps, a more compelling reason for examining the mental images or perceptions people hold of the emerging industrial environment in our cities relate to one underlying assumption regarding the attitude of developing countries to environmental issues. The view is widely held that a major concern and pre-occupation in most developing countries is with economic growth and development and that people are indifferent to and place low premium on environmental quality. This attitude arises from a perception that economic growth and environmental quality are mutually exclusive. Environmental problems/disturbances can be in form of soil erosion, pollution, flood, deforestation, bio-diversity loss, and degradation, quarry and mining problems etc (Adedibu, 1997; Ajayi, 1997 and Odetunde et. al., 1998). Environmental degradation, in general terms, refers to the process that may act to force the condition of a part of the earth’s surface of its surrounding atmosphere to become unpleasant or less useful to man (Akinyele, 2000). The natural environmental settings covers the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere (Olorunfemi and Jimoh, 2000). Within these spheres are a number of interactions that propelled the different types of human related activities. The term environment literally means surroundings, circumstance or influence (Ajibade, 2000). Environmental pollution is a diverse problem experienced all over the globe today, this experience cuts across both the developed and developing worlds. In 1985, the Polish Academic of Sciences described heavily industrialized Poland as the most polluted country in the world (Miller Jnr, 1994). Air, water, and soil are so polluted that at least 1/3 of the people risk contracting environmentally induced respiratory illnesses, and a host of other diseases. Coal supplies 80% of Poland’s energy most of the country’s industrial and power plants have no pollution control technology whatsoever or, at least ineffective controls. Satellite photographs show that the biggest clouds of smokes in Europe hang over southern Poland, partly because large coal burning plant’s have shutdown their pollution control equipment to save power and money (Miller, Jnr, 1994). Adeoti (2004), stated clearly that, industry has been reckoned to contribute much to environmental pollution in developed countries and much research has been done to proffer technological solutions. So far, work on this area has been largely limited to developed countries. However, there has been increasing advocacy that developing countries need not follow the environmentally unfriendly development path of industrialized countries (Adeoti, 2004). Aghalino (2000), asserted that the impact of oil exploitation on the oil mineral producing communities are in three folds. First, it leads to environmental pollution. Secondly, it destroys the ecosystem and the ways of life of the people and lastly, the oil producing communities are generally underdeveloped. Jimoh (2000), made a factual assertion on the interaction between man and his environment. â€Å"Man is a product of the environment as the latter is also an important component in the life of the former. Thus, protecting the environment of man from destruction is inevitable†. Many industrialists have viewed industrial progress and environmental protection as mutually exclusive, but Odiete (1993), advocates that industrial progress and environmental protection must be complementary rather than mutually exclusive. Although Benin City has no major processing industries such as oil refineries, iron and steel or metallurgical industries that usually contribute heavy pollution to the ecosystem, there exist nevertheless other industries like pulp and paper, aluminium, breweries, rubber processing, plastic, livestock feeds, non-alcoholic beverage etc, which generate pollutants. Some of these industries produce noise and thermal changes. Plants and heavy machines used in factories/industries make a hell of noise during their production period (Uchegbu, 1998; Ozo, 1988). Materials and Methods of Study The data on which the study is based were collected through questionnaire survey in 2005 from four zones to which Benin-City was divided. These are Ekenhua road area, Ihama-Boundary road area, Oregbeni quarters of lkpoba hill, and upper Siluko road area (see fig 1). 158 questionnaires were used in this study and the number of questionnaires that were administered in each sampled area depended on the population of that zone. Based on the population, 39 (thirty nine) questionnaires were administered in Ekenhuan, 39 (thirty nine) were also administered in Oregbeni quarters, while 38 (thirty eight) questionnaires were administered in upper Siloko area. In the course of the administration of the questionnaires, the streets and houses were chosen using the systematic sampling techniques. Two questionnaires were used in every eight houses in each street. Responses from the questionnaires were used for data analysis. Averaging model and percentages were used to summarise the data while multiple correlation was used to determine the individual and overall contributions of industrial disturbances in the study area. The analysis of variance was used to examine the variability in industrial perceptions; while the chi-square test was used for testing whether the variables are independent or related. Study Area Benin City plays a dual function of being the capital of Edo State and the headquarter of Oredo Local Government Area. The 1991 census puts the total population of Benin City at 762,717. It lies approximately between latitude 6 °16’N and 6 °33’ North of the equator and longitude 5 °3l’E and 5 °45’ East of the prime meridian. It covers an area of l,2158q.km. Benin City is bounded to the north and west by ovia North East Local Government Area, to the North East by Uhunrnwode Local Government Area, to the East by Oriohwon Local Government Area and to the South by Ugbenu village in Delta State (see fig.2) FIG 1: MAP OF EDO STATE SHOWING STUDY AREA Source: Ministry of Journal of Cartography and G.I.S, (2002) FIG 2: MAP SHOWING BENIN CITY IN EDO STATE Discussion of Results and Findings Table 1: Educational status Source: Fieldwork, 2005 A megre 30.4% of the total respondents are equipped with tertiary education as against a majority of 55.1% of respondents who posses only secondary education. This to a large extent, brings to fore the low level of education in Benin City and in third world countries in general. Table 2: Reponses to listed disturbance Source: Fieldwork, 2005 Key 1 = Very Serious 2 = Slightly Serious 3 = Not Serious From table 2, only columns I and 2 are relevant for this analysis. This is because; these are the respondents that perceive some level of seriousness associated with the industrial disturbances they experience in their area. The responses from column 3 is however not relevant because these respondents do not consider the disturbances as serious and as such do not see the disturbances as posing any danger to human and animal life and to the ecosystem in general. In order to ascertain whether the variables are independent or related, the chi-square test was applied. A calculated value of 34.7 and a table value of 26.30 was obtained. This implies that, the industrial disturbances in the study area is significant enough to attract attention. This also shows that there is a significant difference between those who perceive industrial disturbances and those who do not, in Benin City. Table 3: Awareness status from each area Source: Fieldwork, 2005 A good number of respondents in the different study locations were aware of the disturbances posed by heavy industries. Others were totally unaware. The combination of the respondents who are not aware and indifferent to industrial disturbance shows that a larger proportion of the respondents are ignorant of industrial disturbances. To re-assess the respondent’s premium placed on environmental quality, the question â€Å"Do you consider the environmental impact of your daily activity† was asked. The responses are tabulated below in table 3. Table 4: Premium placed on Environmental quality Source: Fieldwork, 2005 The above analysis clearly shows that the majorities, represented 87.38% of the total respondents, do not consider the environment in their daily activities. One of the research hypotheses, which states that â€Å"there is no significant difference in perceptions between residents who are aware of industrial disturbances and those who are not aware† is tested with the analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical technique. Since the table value of 19.4 is less than the calculated value of 665.78, the null hypothesis is rejected. The alternative hypothesis which states that â€Å"there is a significant difference in perception between residents who are aware of industrial disturbances and those who are not† is thus accepted. This implies that there is a significant variability between those who perceive industrial disturbances and those who do not, between and within each area. (See Appendix A for all necessary computations). Table 5: Magnitude of disturbance Area-by-area Source: Fieldwork, 2005 Here, only residents who perceive the problem as very serious and slightly serious was considered. This is so because, those who do not perceive the disturbances are not relevant in determining the correlation. Table 6: Perceived Industrial disturbances and data for multiple correlation analysis Source: Fieldwork, 2005 Appendix B contains details of the correlation among the four variables. The relationship between the variables is 0.024 (see Appendix B for all necessary computations). The percentage variation of perception of industrial disturbances in the different areas of the study area is 58%. This implies that 58% of the residents in Benin-City perceive industrial disturbance as caused by industries around their neighbourhood, leaving 32% unaware to ignorance, indifference and other reasons. Policy Implications/Recommendations Laws and policies guiding land use should be formulated. This should be done to specific areas of the city or town, which is meant for different uses. Areas for residential, commercial, industrial, administrative recreational, etc. purposes should be well spelt out. Also, such laws should he reviewed periodically to meet up the dynamic nature of human society. Where laws guiding the pattern of the land use in a state, town or city exist they should he effectively implemented and enforced to see that the aim of formulating such laws are achieved. We have a society today where the majority is lawless and as such indiscipline prevails. Environmental Auditing, sometimes called post impact Assessment should be carried out on industries from time to time to make sure that they comply with the environmental safety rules. It should be done especially For industries, which are located around residential areas. This is to check environmental degradation. Both residents and industrialists should be properly educated citizens who wish to develop residential houses should be educated properly in order not to site the building in an industrial layout or close by. Also, industrialists should be oriented on how to keep their factories only to the laid-out areas for industrial purposes in order to avoid future environmental problems. Conclusion This study has x-rayed the perceptions of Benin-City residents towards industrial disturbances. This was evident, as areas, which were delimited for residential purpose have been enveloped by industries and vice versa. This study has also enumerated some of the disturbances caused by industries and suggested possible ways of averting and possibly correcting the ugly trend. References Adedibu, A. A. (1997). Trends in environmental management of drainage, sewage and solid waste in Kware State. A Paper presented at a workshop organized by Kwara State environmental protection agency. Ilorin. Agahlino, 5. 0 (2000). Troleum exploration and environmental degradation in Nigeria. In Jimoh, H. I. And Ifabiyi, I. P. (Eds) contemporary issues in environmental studies, Ilorin; Haytee Press and publishing Co. Ltd. Ajayi, P. S. (1997). Overview of environmental problems in Kwara State: Priority for Action. A paper presented at a workshop organized by Kwara State environmental protection agency, Ilorin. Akinyele, M. A. (2006). A GIS approach to the study of land degradation Journal of the Nigerian Cartographic Association. Vol. 1(1), pp. 7 26. Ajibade, L. T. (2000). The environmental systems In Jimoh. H. I. and Habiyi, I. P. (Eds) Contemporary Issues in Environmental Studies, Ilorin Jimoh, H. 1. (2000). Man-environment Interactions In )irnoh, H. 1. And Ifabiyi, I. P. (Eds). C’ontemporary Issues in Environmental Studies, Ilorin: Haytee press and publishing Co. Ltd. Miller, G. T. (1994) Living in the Environment. California: Wadworth Publishing Company. Odetunde, 0. J. and Ayeni, A. E. (1998). Environmental protection Salako, W. A et al., (Eds) In: Citizenship Education, A concise Approach. lbadan: Lad-od Publishers. Odiete, W. 0. (1993)Environmental Impact Assessment for sustainable Development.† Environmental News October December, Olorunfemi, J. F., and Jimoh, H. I. (2000). Anthropogenic activities and the environment. In Jimoh, H. I. And Ifabiyi, I. (Eds). Contemporary Issues in Environmental Studies. Ilorin: Haytee press and publishing company Ltd. Ozo, A. O. (1988). Perception of Industrial pollution: A case study from Benin City. In Sada P.O. and Odemerho F. 0. (eds) Environmental Issues and Management in Nigerian Development. Evans Brothers (Nigeria Publishers) Limited. Uchegbu, S. N. (1998). Environmental management and protection. Enugu: Precision Printers and Publishers. Appendix A Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Calculations Sum of squares within and between groups SSW=26+266+416+290.67 SSW=998.67 SSb= Ekenhaun=3(13-13.2)2 = 0.12 Ihama/boundary=3-13.2 Oregbeni =3(14-13.2) = 1.92 Upper Siluko=3(12.3-13.2)=0.75 Means sum of squares within (MSW) MSW=SSW N-M MSW=998.67=998.67 12-39 =110.9 ≈111 MSb=SSb M-1 MSb=2.91=2.91=1.453 3-12 =1.5 F ratio=Greater variance estimate Lesser variance estimate =998.67=665.78 1.5 Calculated value=665.78 ANOVA TABLE APPENDIX B Multiple Correlation Calculations r11=1.00Suggesting a perfect correlation r12=-0.268Suggesting a negative correlation r13=-0.084Suggesting also a negative correlation r14=0.01Suggesting a positive but weak correlation r22=1.00Suggesting a perfect correlation r23=0.38Suggesting a positive correlation r24=0.651Suggesting a positive and strong correlation r34=0.668Suggesting a positive and strong correlation r44=1.00Suggesting a perfect correlation

should scarlet letter be published :: essays research papers

Dear Perma-Bound,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It has come to my attention that you are currently debating on whether or not you should publish The Scarlet Letter and introduce it into the literary world. I feel that it would be in your best interest for you to go and publish this novel for all to read.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This novel is a superb piece of literature and people all over the world could reap benefit from its contents. Throughout the novel we feel, not only the suffering of being publicly humiliated for one’s sins, but also the suffering of the guilty one who has not yet let his sins known to the world. We feel the shame Hester feels as the other villagers scorn and torment her for her sin. We can sense her strength as she goes through the first few years without ever once lashing out at anyone for the way they treated her. Hester just accepts it has the part of her punishment. Reverend Dimmesdale’s guilt is so strong and runs so deep that we, as the readers, cry out with sympathy for him and his inner turmoil. Not only does this novel bring us into the souls of its characters in order to better understand them, but it also shows us just how easily friends can turn their backs on you. These villagers that were tormenting Hester had, at one point, been her friends. As soon as these â€Å"friends† found out about what Hester had done they became her enemies. All of the virtues about Hester that they had known were forgotten and in its place was put the knowledge of her sin.

Essay --

Nino Foley 3/4/14 PS 326 Defensive Realism V. Neoconservatism The Iraq Invasion Politically and economically, it could be argued that no other country’s foreign policy exercises such a powerful influence in world affairs as that of the United States. Nowhere is this more the case than the Middle East; a highly contested and volatile region, rich with natural resources and geopolitical importance. The 2003 invasion of Iraq serves as an example of one the most significant events in the region in recent history. The respective lens of systemic defensive realism and domestic constructivism via neoconservatism will be juxtaposed as explanations for the decision to invade Iraq. Defensive realism, in its tenet of states responding to threats, pits the U.S in a reactionary position after 9/11. Responding to the perceived threats of WMD’s in Iraq, scarcity of oil caused in part by increased consumption in India and China, and an unstable international arena in the wake of September 11th, the U.S elected to unilaterally invade Iraq, ignoring objection from the U.N and the global community; hence confirming one of the primary realist principles – the unimportance of international institutions. The election of George W. Bush in 2000 introduced a powerful era of neoconservatism, an ideology whose roots can be traced back to the 1960’s and would exercise momentous influence in the decision to invade Iraq. The Bush Administration housed ten of the founding 25 members of the â€Å"Project for the New American Century†, a neoconservative think-tank based in Washington, D.C. Among them were Vice President Cheney, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and Deputy Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld. Together they would advocate for American hegemon... ...hat necessitated the war. That these systemic forces are of greater importance than the possibility of an underlying ideology in the Bush Administration and are reaffirmed by the cause/effect of 9/11 and the war in Iraq. But this perceived reaction would not have been possible without the filter through which the global situation was being processed, namely neoconservatism. And this is truly where neoconservatism trumps defensive realism. The amalgamation of neocon policy makers with a preexisting agenda to invade Iraq, combined with an administration operating from an ideology that prioritizes the preemptive use of force – is a superior position when compared with a theory that is based in classifying the U.S as a reactionary actor. It was the realities of a domestic ideology in the executive branch that paved the way for the Iraq invasion; not .

Why the United States Became Increasingly Involved in the War in Vietna

Why the United States Became Increasingly Involved in the War in Vietnam The Vietnam conflict originated from a struggle against the colonial rule from France. Vietnam, previously known as Indochina, had been part of the French empire up until 1940, when France was defeated in the Second World War by Germany. During the German occupation of France, Japan seized control of Vietnam and it’s main resources like coal, rice and rubber. While the war was still being fought however, a strong anti-Japanese movement known as the Viet Minh emerged under the leadership of Communist Ho Chi Minh. This group fought against Japanese rule, and by the end of the Second World War, had successfully taken control of North Vietnam while still determined to declare Vietnamese independence across the whole country. In 1945, the French arrived to resume their control over Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh had successfully defeated the Japanese for his country’s independence and hoped the Viet Minh could be victorious once again over France. In 1946, war broke out between the French and the Viet Minh. To begin with, the USA was somewhat sympathetic towards Vietnam, seeing the conflict as a struggle against colonial rule. The story changed however when China became a Communist state and offered support to Ho Chi Minh. America feared a Communist plan to dominate all of South-East Asia and quickly set about pouring money (over $500 million a year) into the French War effort. This support allowed France to successfully set up a non-Communist government in the South of the country. The American support was the product of the â€Å"Truman Doctrine†, a mission designed to â€Å"protec... ...r into war.† Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, with his successor – Lyndon Johnson – more prepared to commit the USA to more extreme actions. He was willing to start a full-scale conflict in Vietnam if it were to prevent the spread of Communism. In August 1964, the US ship Maddox was fired on by North Vietnamese patrol boats in the Gulf of Tonkin. Because of this, American Congress passed the â€Å"Tonkin Gulf Resolution† which allowed Johnson the power to take â€Å"all necessary measures to prevent further aggression and achieve peace and security.† In other words, the President could take the USA into a full scale war should he feel it was necessary. By March 8th 1965, this was the case. 3500 US marines arrived at Da Nang, just as â€Å"Operation Rolling Thunder† came into play. America’s involvement escalated to war in Vietnam.

Development in Early Childhood

In chapter 8, the author highlights the development of a child’s body as he/she goes through different stages of development both physically (body growth and brain) and at the same time acquires different motor skills and begins to manifest different health conditions. In the chapter, focused on different important concepts that included the parts and functions of the body that is beneficial for a child’s growth and development. Due to their relative importance, the chapter also points out important steps that parents and early childhood educators can do to enhance a child’s capabilities.It included different approaches in improving a child’s (1) emotional wellbeing, (2) nutrition, and (3) prevention of different diseases children are prone to during such stage. In addition to that, the chapter also focused on the concept of heredity and how it influences the physical growth of a child. It also stimulates the creation of different bodily functions. Lastly, the chapter mentions the development of motor skills. It elaborated on different situations wherein such skill can be improved and enhanced. Looking at Chapter 9, it relatively focuses on the cognitive development during early childhood.It first elaborates on important theories surrounding the concept. It included (1) Piaget’s Preoperational Stage and (2) Vygotsky’s Sociocultural theory. These two theories explained the realm of cognitive development among children. Looking at Piagets theory, it explains the way children’s cognitive processes are developed and enhanced. In his theory, Piaget advocates that as children advance in age, they also increase their capabilities to decipher mental representations like language and the ‘make believe’ concept among children becomes complex in nature.As children progress in age, they begin to understand the reality in their individual ‘make believe’. This process is called dual representation. In addition to such, the preoperational stage can be characterized as egocentric in nature. sensitivity to children's readiness to learn, and acceptance of individual differences† Vygotsky’s theory on the other hand roots his analysis in the way society affects the development of children’s speech.It is through this that Vygotsky advocated the importance of language as the main contributor for the cognitive process. It emanates from the concept called ‘private speech’ that deals with inner, verbal thought. In addition, the theory points out the creation of intersubjectivity which is a neutral zone for communication and the element of scaffolding by parents as the main components of social interaction that is vital for cognitive development among children. Chapter 10 on the other hand focuses on the emotional and social development in early childhood.It looks at Erikson’s theory of initiative versus guilt and points out important concepts such as : (1) emotional development, (2) peer relations, (3) cultural influences, (4) morality, (5) gender typing and (6) child rearing. In the chapter, the author pointed out the importance of Erikson theory in the analysis of the diverse emotional and social changes during childhood. In addition, the factors mentioned above also have their own fair share of contributions to the development of a child. The chapter pointed out different factors that can affect the way children behave.Due to this, the responsibility is left to parents and educators to effectively enforce and promote the correct values among children since this is an important stage in their overall development as an adult. Another important factor pointed out by the chapter is the relative occurrence of violence and aggression among children. It pointed out the relative influence of media in the increased violent tendencies of children. The chapter points out that parents should create rearing mechanisms that will shield the ir children to such violent behavior at a young age. References (n.d.) Chapter 8:Physical Development in Early Childhood. Retrieved June 23, 2008. (n.d.) Chapter 9:Cognitive Development in Early Childhood. Retrieved June 23, 2008. (n.d.) Chapter 10: Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood. Retrieved June 23,  2008.

Best Fit vs Best Practice

Meaning of Best Fit and Best Practice The terms ‘best fit’ and ‘best practice’ are used in strategic human resource management literature. The best fit approach refers to the firm using human resources management (HRM) to their particular strategies and adapting to the firm’s condition and the environment referring to workforce character and business strategy. With the use of the Best Fit Approach the SHRM can become more flexible to the response change of the organizational life cycle: start-up, growth, maturity and renewal/decline. For example, Met Wholesale had chosen low cost strategy to sustain its position in merchandise industry. Thereby under this approach supportive HR practices like employing part-timers, fresh graduates, and by applying training systems will be applied. The outcome will be that the operation cost will be reduced and they will achieve its goal. On the other hand the Best Practice approach speculate that there is a exact set of HR practices that are applied in almost any organization context which helps in the increase in performance to deliver outcomes which may be valuable for all stakeholders particularly employees. It is based on the idea that there is a set of best HRM practices and its application will help to superior organization performance. This practice could be source from other competitor’s successful strategy. For example, emphasizing the enhancement of employees’ abilities or knowledge and skills through good recruitment and strong training. Another can be through incentives and a reward system; the firm can place emphasis for motivating desired behaviour. Also, by better trained and motivated employees they would have more contribution of ideas and participation. What separates the two approaches, is that the Best Fit relates to firms’ competitive strategy where the SHRM will be designed according to the firms condition and the environment, where as for Best Practice, the firm is able to refer other firm’s successful strategy or general best practice model to improve the firm itself.

Overview of the Social Costs of White-Collar Crime Essay

How much white collar crime actually exists in the society is determined by the organizational resources available to uncover, investigate, and prosecute it, and more generally, enforce what most experts already regard as inadequate laws aimed at its control. Increase rates of white-collar crime produced social costs that is rooted from individual professional employees which is later on promulgated to the rest of the organization and the society as a whole (Rosoff, Pontell, & Tillman 136-137). Social costs can be classified on either monetary or non-monetary level. Financial loss will surely impact those inside and outside the organization. In addition it can also be viewed that social costs of white collar crime may also be related with the economic costs (Rosoff, Pontell, & Tillman 95). It causes devastation to the entire community as compare to lone bank robbery victim. The impact last for many years since it is not only the money being stolen from the company but company services as well (Salinger 177). Victims are affected even for their entire life because they are deprived of their lifetime savings. Identity theft causes victims to be ridiculed by other people because they are misjudged for having criminal records and huge bank credit statements which they did not purchased. Thefts on the other hand commits something that violates not only the law but trust from other people as well. White collar crime damages social relationship. It loosens the morale of people and leads to ample disorganization (Salinger 190). A common white collar crime is tax evasion, which has a very specific effect: taxes are hiked for the poor, to cover for the costs that companies won’t cover. Increased economic hardship for the average citizen and consumer (Rosoff, Pontell, & Tillman 136-137). Crime increases the cost of doing business, and any such increase in business costs is ultimately passed on to the consumer through increased prices and decreased services. Social workers party are also formed as a sign of rebellion to unjust regulations within the company which results to more complex development in businesses (Rosoff, Pontell, & Tillman 252). Deliberately inadequate services and deficient products incur costs. Injury, illness, disability, and death with their attendant psychological suffering are all too common by-products of certain types of white collar crime. This service quality greatly affects the work efficiency of people since manpower is decreasing and may lead to worker’s death (Rosoff, Pontell, & Tillman 136-137). Totality of white collar crime results various social costs. Because workers are underpaid, has no/low insurance and are underprivileged, it has a domino effect that is passed on to other people until it consumes the whole society.

Adolescent Pregnancy Compilation Notes

Adolescent pregnancy – Overview Alternative Names Teenage pregnancy; Pregnancy – teenage Definition of Adolescent pregnancy: Adolescent pregnancy is pregnancy in girls age 19 or  younger. Causes, incidence, and risk factors: The rate of adolescent pregnancy and the birth rate for adolescents have generally declined since reaching an all-time high in 1990, mostly due to the increased use of condoms. Adolescent pregnancy is a complex issue with many reasons for concern. Younger adolescents (12 – 14 years old) are more likely to have unplanned sexual intercourse and more likely to be coerced into sex. Adolescents 18 – 19 years old are technically adults, and half of adolescent pregnancies occur in this age group. Risk factors for adolescent pregnancy include: * Younger age * Poor school performance * Economic disadvantage * Single or teen parents Adolescent pregnancy Teenage pregnancy; Pregnancy – teenage Last reviewed: September 12, 2011. Adolescent pregnancy is pregnancy in girls age 19 or  younger. Causes, incidence, and risk factors Adolescent pregnancy and babies born to adolescents have dropped since reaching an all-time high in 1990. This is mostly due to the increased use of condoms. Adolescent pregnancy is a complex issue with many reasons for concern. Kids age 12 – 14 years old are more likely than other adolescents to have unplanned sexual intercourse . They are more likely to be talked into having into sex. Up to two-thirds of adolescent pregnancies occur in teens age 18 – 19 years old. Risk factors for adolescent pregnancy include: * Younger age * Poor school performance * Economic disadvantage * Older male partner * Single or teen parents Symptoms Pregnancy symptoms include: * Abdominal distention * Breast enlargement and breast tenderness * Fatigue * Light-headedness or actual fainting Missed period * Nausea/vomiting * Frequent urination Signs and tests The adolescent may or may not admit to being involved sexually. If the teen is pregnant, there are usually weight changes (usually a gain, but there may be a loss if nausea and vomiting are significant). Examination may show increased abdominal girth, and the health care provider may be able t o feel the fundus (the top of the enlarged uterus). Pelvic examination may reveal bluish or purple coloration of vaginal walls, bluish or purple coloration and softening of the cervix, and softening and enlargement of the uterus. A pregnancy test of urine and/or serum HCG are usually positive. * A pregnancy ultrasound may be done to confirm or check accurate dates for pregnancy. Treatment All options made available to the pregnant teen should be considered carefully, including abortion, adoption, and raising the child with community or family support. Discussion with the teen may require several visits with a health care provider to explain all options in a non-judgmental manner and involve the parents or the father of the baby as appropriate. Early and adequate prenatal care, preferably through a program that specializes in teenage pregnancies, ensures a healthier baby. Pregnant teens need to be assessed for smoking, alcohol use, and drug use, and they should be offered support to help them quit. Adequate nutrition can be encouraged through education and community resources. Appropriate exercise and adequate sleep should also be emphasized. Contraceptive information and services are important after delivery to prevent teens from becoming pregnant again. Pregnant teens and those who have recently given birth should be encouraged and helped to remain in school or reenter educational programs that give them the skills to be better parents, and provide for their child financially and emotionally. Accessible and affordable child care is an important factor in teen mothers continuing school or entering the work force. Expectations (prognosis) Having her first child during adolescence makes a woman more likely to have more children overall. Teen mothers are about 2 years behind their age group in completing their education. Women who have a baby during their teen years are more likely to live in poverty. Teen mothers with a history of substance abuse are more likely to start abusing by about 6 months after delivery. Teen mothers are more likely than older mothers to have a second child within 2 years of their first child. Infants born to teenage mothers are at greater risk for developmental problems. Girls born to teen mothers are more likely to become teen mothers themselves, and boys born to teen mothers have a higher than average rate of being arrested and jailed. Complications Adolescent pregnancy is associated with higher rates of illness and death for both the mother and infant. Death from violence is the second leading cause of death durig pregnancy for teens, and is higher in teens than in any other group. Pregnant teens are at much higher risk of having serious medical complications such as: * Placenta previa * Pregnancy-induced hypertension * Premature delivery * Significant anemia * Toxemia Infants born to teens are 2 – 6 times more likely to have low birth weight than those born to mothers age 20 or older. Prematurity plays the greatest role in low birth weight, but intrauterine growth retardation (inadequate growth of the fetus during pregnancy) is also a factor. Teen mothers are more likely to have unhealthy habits that place the infant at greater risk for inadequate growth, infection, or chemical dependence. The younger a mother is below age 20, the greater the risk of her infant dying during the first year of life. It is very important for pregnant teens to have early and adequate prenatal care. Calling your health care provider Make an appointment with your health care provider if you have symptoms of pregnancy. Your health care provider can also provide counseling regarding birth control methods, sexually transmitted disease (STD) prevention, or pregnancy risk. Prevention There are many different kinds of teen pregnancy prevention programs. * Abstinence education programs encourage young people to wait to have sex until marriage, or until they are mature enough to handle sexual activity and a potential pregnancy in a responsible manner. * Knowledge-based programs focus on teaching kids about their bodies. It also provides detailed information about birth control and how to prevent sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Research shows knowledge-based programs help decrease teen pregnancy rates. Abstinence-only education without information about birth control does not. * Clinic-focused programs give kids easier access to information, counseling by health care providers, and birth control services. Many of these programs are offered through school-based clinics. * Peer counseling programs typically involve older teens, who encourage other kids to resist peer and social pressures to have sex. For teens who are already sexually active, peer counseling programs teach them relationship skills and give them information on how to get and successfully use birth control. Teenage pregnancy Teenage pregnancy refers to pregnancy in a female under the age of 20 (when the pregnancy ends). It generally refers to a female who is unmarried and usually refers to an unplanned pregnancy. A pregnancy can take place at any time after puberty, with menarche (first menstrual period) normally taking place around the ages 12 or 13, and being the stage at which a female becomes potentially fertile. Teenage pregnancy depends on a number of societal and personal factors. Teenage pregnancy rates vary between countries because of differences in levels of sexual activity, general sex education provided and access to affordable contraceptive options. Worldwide, teenage pregnancy rates range from 143 per 1000 in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2. 9 per 1000 in South Korea. Pregnant teenagers face many of the same obstetrics issues as women in their 20s and 30s. There are however, additional medical concerns for mothers age 14 or younger. For mothers between 15 and 19, risks are associated more with socioeconomic factors than with the biological effects of age. However research has shown that the risk of low birth weight is connected to the biological age itself, as it was observed in teen births even after controlling for other risk factors (such as utilisation of antenatal care etc. ). In developed countries, teenage pregnancies are associated with many social issues, including lower educational levels, higher rates of poverty, and other poorer â€Å"life outcomes† in children of teenage mothers. Teenage pregnancy in developed countries is usually outside of marriage, and carries a social stigma in many communities and cultures. Many studies and campaigns have attempted to uncover the causes and limit the numbers of teenage pregnancies. In other countries and cultures, particularly in the developing world, teenage pregnancy is usually within marriage and does not involve a social stigma. Among OECD developed countries, the United States and United Kingdom have the highest level of teenage pregnancy, while Japan and South Korea have the lowest. Teenage pregnancy rates In reporting teenage pregnancy rates, the number of pregnancies per 1000 females aged 15 to 19 when the pregnancy ends is generally used. The rates look at the age at which a pregnancy ends, and not the age when the woman conceives, so that if a woman aborts her pregnancy or misscarries while she is 19, she would be counted, while if she went full term and gave birth at age 20 she would not be counted. According to a 2001 UNICEF survey, in 10 out of 12 developed nations with available data, more than two thirds of young people have had sexual intercourse while still in their teens. In Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Norway, the United Kingdom and the United States, the proportion is over 80%. In Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States, approximately 25% of 15 year olds and 50% of 17 year olds have had sex. In a 2005 Kaiser Family Foundation study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported â€Å"being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually†, and 24% had â€Å"done something sexual they didn’t really want to do†. Several polls have indicated peer pressure as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex. The increased sexual activity among adolescents is manifested in increased teenage pregnancies and an increase in sexually transmitted diseases. The rates of teenage pregnancy vary and range from 143 per 1000 girls in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2. 9 per 1000 in South Korea. The rate for the United States is 52. 1 per 1000, the highest in the developed world – and about four times the European Union average. Care must also be taken of the common actual marriage age in different countries, as in countries where teenage marriages are common can expect to also experience higher levels of teenage pregnancies. In an attempt to reverse the increasing numbers of teenage pregnancies, governments in many Western countries have instituted sex education programs, the main objective of which is to reduce such pregnancies and STD's. Save the Children found that, annually, 13 million children are born to women under age 20 worldwide, more than 90% in developing countries. Complications of pregnancy and childbirth are the leading cause of mortality among women between the ages of 15 and 19 in such areas. The highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the world is in sub-Saharan Africa, where women tend to marry at an early age. In Niger, for example, 87% of women surveyed were married and 53% had given birth to a child before the age of 18. In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage sometimes means adolescent pregnancy, particularly in rural regions where the rate is much higher than it is in urbanized areas. The rate of early marriage and pregnancy has decreased sharply in Indonesia and Malaysia, although it remains relatively high in the former. In the industrialized Asian nations such as South Korea and Singapore, teenage birth rates are among the lowest in the world. The overall trend in Europe since 1970 has been a decreasing total fertility rate, an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers. Most continental Western European countries have very low teenage birth rates. This is varyingly attributed to good sex education and high levels of contraceptive use (in the case of the Netherlands and Scandinavia), traditional values and social stigmatization (in the case of Spain and Italy) or both (in the case of Switzerland). The teenage birth rate in the United States is the highest in the developed world, and the teenage bortion rate is also high. The U. S. teenage pregnancy rate was at a high in the 1950s and has decreased since then, although there has been an increase in births out of wedlock. The teenage pregnancy rate decreased significantly in the 1990s; this decline manifested across all racial groups, although teenagers of African-American and Hispanic descent retai n a higher rate, in comparison to that of European-Americans and Asian-Americans. The Guttmacher Institute attributed about 25% of the decline to abstinence and 75% to the effective use of contraceptives. However, in 2006 the teenage birth rate rose for the first time in fourteen years. This could imply that teen pregnancy rates are also on the rise, however the rise could also be due to other sources: a possible decrease in the number of abortions or a decrease in the number of miscarriages, to name a few. The Canadian teenage birth has also trended towards a steady decline for both younger (15–17) and older (18–19) teens in the period between 1992 and 2002. The age of the mother is determined by the easily verified date when the pregnancy ends, not by the estimated date of conception. Consequently, the statistics do not include women who became pregnant at least shortly before their 20th birthdays, but who gave birth, experienced a miscarriage, or had a voluntary abortion on or after their 20th birthdays. Similarly, statistics on the mother's marital status are determined by whether she is married at the end of the pregnancy, not at the time of conception. Impact Maternal and prenatal health is of particular concern among teens who are pregnant or parenting. The worldwide incidence of premature birth and low birth weight is higher among adolescent mothers. In a rural hospital in West Bengal, teenage mothers between 15–19 years old were more likely to have anemia, preterm delivery, and low birth weight than mothers between 20–24 years old. Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to receive prenatal care, often seeking it in the third trimester, if at all. The Guttmacher Institute reports that one-third of pregnant teens receive insufficient prenatal care and that their children are more likely to suffer from health issues in childhood or be hospitalized than those born to older women. Young mothers who are given high-quality maternity care have significantly healthier babies than those that do not. Many of the health-issues associated with teenage mothers, many of whom do not have health insurance, appear to result from lack of access to high-quality medical care. Many pregnant teens are subject to nutritional deficiencies from poor eating habits common in adolescence, including attempts to lose weight through dieting, skipping meals, food faddism, snacking, and consumption of fast food. Inadequate nutrition during pregnancy is an even more marked problem among teenagers in developing countries. Complications of pregnancy result in the deaths of an estimated 70,000 teen girls in developing countries each year. Young mothers and their babies are also at greater risk of contracting HIV. The World Health Organization estimates that the risk of death following pregnancy is twice as great for women between 15 and 19 years than for those between the ages of 20 and 24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for girls aged between 10 and 14 than for women of about twenty years of age. Illegal abortion also holds many risks for teenage girls in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa. Risks for medical complications are greater for girls 14 years of age and younger, as an underdeveloped pelvis can lead to difficulties in childbirth. Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by Caesarean section in industrialized nations; however, in developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to eclampsia, obstetric fistula, infant mortality, or maternal death. For mothers in their late teens, age in itself is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology. Psychosocial Several studies have examined the socioeconomic, medical, and psychological impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens. Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary; other factors, such as poverty or social support, may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents who can rely on family and community support, social services and child-care support are more likely to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education. In the mother Being a young mother in an industrialized country can affect one's education. Teen mothers are more likely to drop out of high school. Recent studies, though, have found that many of these mothers had already dropped out of school prior to becoming pregnant, but those in school at the time of their pregnancy were as likely to graduate as their peers. One study in 2001 found that women who gave birth during their teens completed secondary-level schooling 10–12% as often and pursued post-secondary education 14–29% as often as women who waited until age 30. Young motherhood in an industrialized country can affect employment and social class. Less than one third of teenage mothers receive any form of child support, vastly increasing the likelihood of turning to the government for assistance. The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women. One study found that, in 1988, 60% of teenage mothers were impoverished at the time of giving birth. Additional research found that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought social assistance within the first five years of their child's life. A study of 100 teenaged mothers in the United Kingdom found that only 11% received a salary, while the remaining 89% were unemployed. Most British teenage mothers live in poverty, with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution. Teenage women who are pregnant or mothers are seven times more likely to commit suicide than other teenagers. Professor John Ermisch at the institute of social and economic research at Essex University and Dr Roger Ingham, director of the centre of sexual health at Southampton University – found that comparing teenage mothers with other girls with similarly deprived social-economic profiles, bad school experiences and low educational aspirations, the difference in their respective life chances was negligible. Teenage Motherhood may actually make economic sense for young women with less money, some research suggests. For instance, long-term studies by Duke economist V. Joseph Hotz and colleagues, published in 2005, found that by age 35, former teen moms had earned more in income, paid more in taxes, were substantially less likely to live in poverty and collected less in public assistance than similarly poor women who waited until their 20s to have babies. Women who became mothers in their teens — freed from child-raising duties by their late 20s and early 30s to pursue employment while poorer women who waited to become moms were still stuck at home watching their young children — wound up paying more in taxes than they had collected in welfare. Eight years earlier, the federally commissioned report â€Å"Kids Having Kids† also contained a similar finding, though it was buried: â€Å"Adolescent childbearers fare slightly better than later-childbearing counterparts in terms of their overall economic welfare. One-fourth of adolescent mothers will have a second child within 24 months of the first. Factors that determine which mothers are more likely to have a closely spaced repeat birth include marriage and education: the likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman – or her parents – and increases if she gets married. In the child Early motherhood can affect the psychosocial development of the infant. Developmental disabilities and behavioral issues are increased in children born to teen mothers. One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to stimulate their infant through affectionate behaviors such as touch, smiling, and verbal communication, or to be sensitive and accepting toward his or her needs. Another found that those who had more social support were less likely to show anger toward their children or to rely upon punishment. Poor academic performance in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of them being more likely than average to fail to graduate from secondary school, be held back a grade level, or score lower on standardized tests. Daughters born to adolescent parents are more likely to become teen mothers themselves. A son born to a young woman in her teens is three times more likely to serve time in prison. In other family members Teen pregnancy and motherhood can influence younger siblings. One study found that the younger sisters of teen mothers were less likely to emphasize the importance of education and employment and more likely to accept human sexual behavior, parenting, and marriage at younger ages; younger brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of non-marital and early births, in addition to being more susceptible to high-risk behaviors. If the younger sisters of teenage parents babysit the children, they have an increased risk of getting pregnant themselves. Causes In some societies, early marriage and traditional gender roles are important factors in the rate of teenage pregnancy. For example, in some sub-Saharan African countries, early pregnancy is often seen as a blessing because it is proof of the young woman's fertility. In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage and pregnancy is more common in traditional rural communities compared to the rate in cities. The lack of education on safe sex, whether it’s from parents, schools, or otherwise, is a cause of teenage pregnancy. Many teenagers are not taught about methods of birth control and how to deal with peers who pressure them into having sex before they are ready. Many pregnant teenagers do not have any cognition of the central facts of sexuality. Some teens have said to be pressured into having sex with their boyfriends at a young age, and yet no one had taught these teens how to deal with this pressure or to say â€Å"no†. In societies where adolescent marriage is less common, such as many developed countries, young age at first intercourse and lack of use of contraceptive methods (or their inconsistent and/or incorrect use; the use of a method with a high failure rate is also a problem) may be factors in teen pregnancy. Most teenage pregnancies in the developed world appear to be unplanned. Sexuality In most countries, most men experience sexual intercourse for the first time before their 20th birthdays. Men in Western developed countries have sex for the first time sooner than in undeveloped and culturally conservative countries such as Sub-Saharan Africa and much of Asia. Countries with low levels of teenagers giving birth accept sexual relationships among teenagers and provide comprehensive and balanced information about sexuality. However, in a Kaiser Family Foundation study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported â€Å"being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually†, and 24% had â€Å"done something sexual they didn’t really want to do†. Several polls have indicated peer pressure as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex. Role of drug and alcohol use Inhibition-reducing drugs and alcohol may possibly encourage unintended sexual activity. If so, it is unknown if the drugs themselves directly influence teenagers to engage in riskier behavior, or whether teenagers who engage in drug use are more likely to engage in sex. Correlation does not imply causation. The drugs with the strongest evidence linking to teenage pregnancy are alcohol, â€Å"ecstasy†, cannabis, and amphetamines. The drugs with the least evidence to support a link to early pregnancy are opioids, such as heroin, morphine, and oxycodone, of which a well-known effect is the significant reduction of libido – it appears that teenage opioid users have significantly reduced rates of conception compared to their non-using, and alcohol, â€Å"ecstasy†, cannabis, and amphetamine using peers. Amphetamines are often prescribed to treat ADHD – internationally, the countries with the highest rates of recorded amphetamine prescription to teenagers also have the highest rates of teenage pregnancy. 2][12][51][52], Leonard Sax, M. D. , Ph. D. , 2005, Doubleday books, p. 128. Lack of contraception Adolescents may lack knowledge of, or access to, conventional methods of preventing pregnancy, as they may be too embarrassed or frightened to seek such information. Contraception for teenagers presents a huge challenge for the clinician. In 1998, the government of the United Kingdom set a target to halve the under-18 pregnancy rate by 2010. The Teenage Pregnancy Strategy (TPS) was established to achieve this. The pregnancy rate in this group, although falling, rose slightly in 2007, to 41. 7 per 1000 women. Young women often think of contraception either as ‘the pill' or condoms and have little knowledge about other methods. They are heavily influenced by negative, second-hand stories about methods of contraception from their friends and the media. Prejudices are extremely difficult to overcome. Over concern about side-effects, for example weight gain and acne, often affect choice. Missing up to three pills a month is common, and in this age group the figure is likely to be higher. Restarting after the pill-free week, having to hide pills, drug interactions and difficulty getting repeat prescriptions can all lead to method failure. In the United States, according to the 2002 National Surveys of Family Growth, sexually active adolescent women wishing to avoid pregnancy were less likely than those of other ages to use contraceptives (18% of 15- to 19-year-olds used no contraceptives, versus 10. 7% average for women ages 15 to 44). More than 80% of teen pregnancies are unintended. Over half of unintended pregnancies were to women not using contraceptives, most of the rest are due to inconsistent or incorrect use. 23% of sexually active young women in a 1996 Seventeen magazine poll admitted to having had unprotected sex with a partner who did not use a condom, while 70% of girls in a 1997 PARADE poll claimed it was embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor. In a study for The Guttmacher Institute, researchers found that from a comparative perspective, however, teenage pregnancy rates in the United States are less nuanced than one might initially assume. Since timing and levels of sexual activity are quite similar across [Sweden, France, Canada, Great Britain, and the U. S. ], the high U. S. rates arise primarily because of less, and possibly less-effective, contraceptive use by sexually active teenagers. † Thus, the cause for the discrepancy between rich nations can be traced largely to contraceptive-based issues. Among teens in the UK seeking an abortion, a study found that the rate of contraceptive use was roughly the same for teens as for older women. In other cases, contraception is used, but proves to be inadequate. Inexperienced adolescents may use condoms incorrectly, forget to take oral contraceptives, or fail to use the contraceptives they had previously chosen. Contraceptive failure rates are higher for teenagers, particularly poor ones, than for older users. Long-acting contraceptives such as intrauterine devices, subcutaneous contraceptive implants, and contraceptive injections (such as Depo-Provera and Combined injectable contraceptive), which prevent pregnancy for months or years at a time, are more effective in women who have trouble remembering to take pills or using barrier methods consistently. Age discrepancy in relationships According to the conservative lobbying organization Family Research Council, studies in the US indicate that age discrepancy between the teenage girls and the men who impregnate them is an important contributing factor. Teenage girls in relationships with older boys, and in particular with adult men, are more likely to become pregnant than teenage girls in relationships with boys their own age. They are also more likely to carry the baby to term rather than have an abortion. A review of California's 1990 vital statistics found that men older than high school age fathered 77% of all births to high school-aged girls (ages 16–18), and 51% of births to junior high school-aged girls (15 and younger). Men over age 25 fathered twice as many children of teenage mothers than boys under age 18, and men over age 20 fathered five times as many children of junior high school-aged girls as did junior high school-aged boys. A 1992 Washington state study of 535 adolescent mothers found that 62% of the mothers had a history of being raped or sexual molested by men whose ages averaged 27 years. This study found that, compared with nonabused mothers, abused adolescent mothers initiated sex earlier, had sex with much older partners, and engaged in riskier, more frequent, and promiscuous sex. Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of children born to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older. Sexual abuse Studies from South Africa have found that 11–20% of pregnancies in teenagers are a direct result of rape, while about 60% of teenage mothers had unwanted sexual experiences preceding their pregnancy. Before age 15, a majority of first-intercourse experiences among females are reported to be non-voluntary; the Guttmacher Institute found that 60% of girls who had sex before age 15 were coerced by males who on average were six years their senior. One in five teenage fathers admitted to forcing girls to have sex with them. Multiple studies have indicated a strong link between early childhood sexual abuse and subsequent teenage pregnancy in industrialized countries. Up to 70% of women who gave birth in their teens were molested as young girls; by contrast, 25% for women who did not give birth as teens were molested. In some countries, sexual intercourse between a minor and an adult is not considered consensual under the law because a minor is believed to lack the maturity and competence to make an informed decision to engage in fully consensual sex with an adult. In those countries, sex with a minor is therefore considered statutory rape. In most European countries, by contrast, once an adolescent has reached the age of consent, he or she can legally have sexual relations with adults because it is held that in general (although certain limitations may still apply), reaching the age of consent enables a juvenile to consent to sex with any partner who has also reached that age. Therefore, the definition of statutory rape is limited to sex with a person under the minimum age of consent. What constitutes statutory rape ultimately differs by jurisdiction. Dating violence Studies have indicated that adolescent girls are often in abusive relationships at the time of their conceiving. They have also reported that knowledge of their pregnancy has often intensified violent and controlling behaviors on part of their boyfriends. Women under age 18 are twice as likely to be beaten by their child's father than women over age 18. A UK study found that 70% of women who gave birth in their teens had experienced adolescent domestic violence. Similar results have been found in studies in the United States. A Washington State study found 70% of teenage mothers had been beaten by their boyfriends, 51% had experienced attempts of birth control sabotage within the last year, and 21% experienced school or work sabotage. In a study of 379 pregnant or parenting teens and 95 teenage girls without children, 62% of the girls aged 11–15 years and 56% of girls aged 16–19 years reported experiencing domestic violence at the hands of their partners. Moreover, 51% of the girls reported experiencing at least one instance where their boyfriend attempted to sabotage their efforts to use birth control. Socioeconomic factors Teenage pregnancy has been defined predominantly within the research field and among social agencies as a social problem. Poverty is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy. Economically poor countries such as Niger and Bangladesh have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich countries such as Switzerland and Japan. In the UK, around half of all pregnancies to under 18s are concentrated among the 30% most deprived population, with only 14% occurring among the 30% least deprived. For example, in Italy, the teenage birth rate in the well-off central regions is only 3. 3 per 1,000, while in the poorer Mezzogiorno it is 10. 0 per 1,000. Similarly, in the United States, sociologist Mike A. Males noted that teenage birth rates closely mapped poverty rates in California: County| Poverty rate| Birth rate*| Marin County| 5%| 5| Tulare County (Caucasians)| 18%| 50| Tulare County (Hispanics)| 40%| 100| * per 1000 women aged 15–19 Teen pregnancy cost the United States over $9. 1 billion in 2004. There is little evidence to support the common belief that teenage mothers become pregnant to get benefits, welfare, and council housing. Most knew little about housing or financial aid before they got pregnant and what they thought they knew often turned out to be wrong. Childhood environment Women exposed to abuse, domestic violence, and family strife in childhood are more likely to become pregnant as teenagers, and the risk of becoming pregnant as a teenager increases with the number of adverse childhood experiences. According to a 2004 study, one-third of teenage pregnancies could be prevented by eliminating exposure to abuse, violence, and family strife. The researchers note that â€Å"family dysfunction has enduring and unfavorable health consequences for women during the adolescent years, the childbearing years, and beyond. When the family environment does not include adverse childhood experiences, becoming pregnant as an adolescent does not appear to raise the likelihood of long-term, negative psychosocial consequences. Studies have also found that boys raised in homes with a battered mother, or who experienced physical violence directly, were significantly more likely to impregnate a girl. Studies have also found that girls whose fathers lef t the family early in their lives had the highest rates of early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. Girls whose fathers left them at a later age had a lower rate of early sexual activity, and the lowest rates are found in girls whose fathers were present throughout their childhood. Even when the researchers took into account other factors that could have contributed to early sexual activity and pregnancy, such as behavioral problems and life adversity, early father-absent girls were still about five times more likely in the United States and three times more likely in New Zealand to become pregnant as adolescents than were father-present girls. Low educational expectations have been pinpointed as a risk factor. A girl is also more likely to become a teenage parent if her mother or older sister gave birth in her teens. A majority of respondents in a 1988 Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies survey attributed the occurrence of adolescent pregnancy to a breakdown of communication between parents and child and also to inadequate parental supervision. Foster care youth are more likely than their peers to become pregnant as teenagers. The National Casey Alumni Study, which surveyed foster care alumni from 23 ommunities across the United States, found the birth rate for girls in foster care was more than double the rate of their peers outside the foster care system. A University of Chicago study of youth transitioning out of foster care in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin found that nearly half of the females had been pregnant by age 19. The Utah Department of Human Services found that girls who had left the foster care sy stem between 1999 and 2004 had a birth rate nearly 3 times the rate for girls in the general population. Media influence A study conducted in 2006 found that adolescents who were more exposed to sexuality in the media were also more likely to engage in sexual activity themselves. According to Time, â€Å"teens exposed to the most sexual content on TV are twice as likely as teens watching less of this material to become pregnant before they reach age 20†. Prevention Many health educators have argued that comprehensive sex education would effectively reduce the number of teenage pregnancies, although opponents argue that such education encourages more and earlier sexual activity. United Kingdom In the UK, the teenage pregnancy strategy, which was run first by the Department of Health and is now based out of the Children, Young People and Families directorate in the Department for Children, Schools and Families, works on several levels to reduce teenage pregnancy and increase the social inclusion of teenage mothers and their families by: * joined up action, making sure branches of government and health and education services work together effectively; * prevention of teenage pregnancy through better sex education and improving contraceptive and advice services for young people, involving young people in service design, supporting the parents of teenagers to talk to them about sex and relationships, and targeting high-risk groups; * better support for teenage mothers, including help returning to education, advice and support, work with young fathers, better childcare and increasing the availability of supported housing. The teenage pregnancy strategy has had mixed success. Although teenage pregnancies have fallen overall, they have not fallen consistently in every region, and in some areas they have increased. There are questions about whether the 2010 target of a 50% reduction on 1998 levels can be met. United States In the United States the topic of sex education is the subject of much contentious debate. Some schools provide â€Å"abstinence-only† education and virginity pledges are increasingly popular. A 2004 study by Yale and Columbia Universities found that 88% of those who pledge abstinence have premarital sex anyway. Most public schools offer â€Å"abstinence-plus† programs that support abstinence but also offer advice about contraception. A team of researchers and educators in California have published a list of â€Å"best practices† in the prevention of teen pregnancy, which includes, in addition to the previously mentioned concepts, working to â€Å"instill a belief in a successful future†, male involvement in the prevention process, and designing interventions that are culturally relevant. On September 30, 2010, The U. S. Department of Health and Human Services approved $155 million dollars in new funding for comprehensive sex education programs designed to prevent teenage pregnancy. The money is being awarded â€Å"to states, non-profit organizations, school districts, universities and others. These grants will support the replication of teen pregnancy prevention programs that have been shown to be effective through rigorous research as well as the testing of new, innovative approaches to combating teen pregnancy. † For teens who choose to engage in sexual activity, the primary mode of preventing teen pregnancy becomes correct use of contraceptives. In the States, one policy initiative that has been used to increase rates of contraceptive use is Title X: Title X of the 1970 Public Health Service act provides family planning services for those who do not qualify for Medicaid by distributing â€Å"funding to a network of public, private, and nonprofit entities [in order to provide] services on a sliding scale based on income. Studies indicate that, internationally, success in reducing teen pregnancy rates is directly correlated with the kind of access that Title X provides: â€Å"What appears crucial to success is that adolescents know where they can go to obtain inf ormation and services, can get there easily and are assured of receiving confidential, nonjudgmental care, and that these services and contraceptive supplies are free or cost very little. In addressing high rates of unplanned teen pregnancies, scholars agree that the problem must be confronted from both the biological and cultural contexts. Netherlands The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health-care system guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach. Developing world In the developing world, programs of reproductive health aimed at teenagers are often small scale and not centrally coordinated, although some countries such as Sri Lanka have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools. Non-governmental agencies such as the International Planned Parenthood Federation and Marie Stopes International provide contraceptive advice for young women worldwide. Laws against child marriage have reduced but not eliminated the practice. Improved female literacy and educational prospects have led to an increase in the age at first birth in areas such as Iran, Indonesia, and the Indian state of Kerala. Teenage fatherhood In some cases, the father of the child is the husband of the teenage girl. The conception may occur within wedlock, or the pregnancy itself may precipitate the marriage (the so-called shotgun wedding). In countries such as India the majority of teenage births occur within marriage. In other countries, such as the United States and the Republic of Ireland, the majority of teenage mothers are not married to the fathers of their children. In the UK, half of all teenagers with children are lone parents, 40% are cohabitating as a couple and 10% are married. Teenage parents are frequently in a romantic relationship at the time of birth, but many adolescent fathers do not stay with the mother and this often disrupts their relationship with the child. Research has shown that when teenage fathers are included in decision-making during pregnancy and birth, they are more likely to report increased involvement with their children in later years. In the U. S, eight out of ten teenage fathers do not marry their first child's mother. However, â€Å"teenage father† may be a misnomer in many cases. Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older. The Guttmacher Institute reports that over 40% of mothers aged 15–17 had sexual partners three to five years older and almost one in five had partners six or more years older. A 1990 study of births to California teens reported that the younger the mother, the greater the age gap with her male partner. In the UK 72% of jointly registered births to women under the age of 20, the father is over the age of 20, with almost 1 in 4 being over 25. History Teenage pregnancy was normal in previous centuries. Perhaps the most famous teenage pregnancy in history was Mary, Mother of Jesus. She is generally believed to have been 13 years old when she gave birth to Jesus. Other sources place her age as high as 15 years. Hildegard of Vinzgouw, the wife of Charlemagne was about 14 years old when she gave birth to her first son in 772 CE. The mother of Henry VII of England was 13 years old when she gave birth to him in 1457. Maria of Tver, the wife of Ivan the Great of Russia, gave birth to her first son when she was about 16 years old, in 1458. Empress Teimei of Japan was 16 years old when she gave birth to Hirohito in 1901. Lina Medina of Peru holds the world record for youngest live birth: She was five years, seven months old when she gave birth in 1939. Society and culture Teenage pregnancy has been used as a theme or plot device in fiction, including books, films, and television series. The setting may be historical (The Blue Lagoon, Hope and Glory) or contemporary (One Tree Hill). While the subject is generally treated in a serious manner (Junk), it can sometimes play up to stereotypes in a comic manner (Vicky Pollard in Little Britain). The pregnancy itself may be the result of sexual abuse (Rose in The Cider House Rules), a one-night stand (Amy Barnes in Hollyoaks), a romantic relationship (Demi Miller in EastEnders); (Ronnie Mitchell in EastEnders); or a first time sexual encounter (Sarah-Louise Platt in Coronation Street) unusually, in Quinceanera, the central character becomes pregnant through non-penetrative sex. The drama often focuses around the discovery of the regnancy and the decision to opt for abortion (Fast Times at Ridgemont High), adoption (Mom at Sixteen, Juno, Glee), marriage (Sugar & Spice, Reba and Jeni, Juno) or life as a single mother (Saved! , Where the Heart Is, Someone Like You). In the German play Spring Awakening (and the Broadway musical based upon it), the central female character gets pregnant and dies from a botched abortion. Stephanie Daley deals with the aftermath of a teenage pregnancy that ends with a dead newborn baby. While the pregnant girl herself is normally the chief protagonist, Too Young to Be a Dad centers on a 15-year-old boy whose girlfriend becomes pregnant, while The Snapper focuses on the reactions of the family, particularly the soon-to-be grandfather. Other fiction, particularly in a long-running television series, looks at the long-term effects of becoming a parent at a very young age (Degrassi Junior High). In Gilmore Girls, because Lorelai Gilmore is only 16 years older than her daughter Rory, the two are more like sisters than parent and child. Looking for Alibrandi also features the teenage daughter of a woman who was herself a teenage mother. In The George Lopez Show, Benny Lopez, gave birth to George at 16. In the ABC Family television show The Secret Life of the American Teenager centers on Amy Juergens, a 15-year-old who becomes a teenage mother after a one night stand. In the popular Comedy Central television show South Park the character Carol McCormick was said to have had her sons Kevin McCormick at 13, and Kenny McCormick at 16. In the Japanese drama 14-sai no Haha: Aisuru tame ni Umaretekita, the protagonist Miki Ichinose becomes pregnant with her boyfriend's child at age 14. The show examines the impact of her pregnancy on her, her family, her school life, the life of her boyfriend and his family, and the society in which she resides. Additionally, reality television shows have featured teenage pregnancy stories. MTV launched two reality shows about the topic, 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom, in 2009. Each show depicts the gritty reality that pregnant teens face from friends and family while going through this life changing event, allowing teens to see what actually happens in this scenario through an outlet other than a scripted plot. Autobiographies that look at the author’s own experience of teenage motherhood include I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings and Gather Together in My Name by Maya Angelou, Coal Miner's Daughter by Loretta Lynn, and Riding in Cars with Boys by Beverly D'Onofrio. Songs about teenage pregnancy include downbeat tales of abuse (â€Å"Brenda's Got a Baby†), poverty (â€Å"In The Ghetto†) and back-alley abortion (â€Å"Sally's Pigeons†), as well as upbeat and defiant tunes such as â€Å"Papa Don't Preach†. American pop singer Fantasia Barrino, who was 17 when she gave birth to her daughter, released a controversial song about single motherhood titled â€Å"Baby Mama†, describing the difficulty of raising a child alone with limited financial and family support. (Many U. S. adio stations would not play the song, ostensibly because it contains a profanity. ) â€Å"There Goes My Life†, a modern country song by Kenny Chesney, focuses on the reaction of the father, who rhetorically asks, â€Å"I'm just a kid myself; how am I going to raise one? † As the daughter grows up, his attitude changes, and the song ends with his tearful farewell as she leaves for college. Due to its implied pro-life message, â€Å"There Goes My Life† was sung at the inauguration of George W. Bush in 2005 Teen pregnancies in the Philippines By Rebecca B. Singson Philippine Daily Inquirer First Posted 00:55:00 06/14/2008 Filed Under: Health, Lifestyle & Leisure, Gender Issues (First in a series) MANILA, Philippines? The sexual revolution has ushered in a period in which the average adolescent experiences tremendous pressures to have sexual experiences of all kinds. Filipino teens get a higher exposure to sex from the Internet, magazines, TV shows, movies and other media than decades ago, yet without any corresponding increase in information on how to handle the input. So kids are pretty much left to other kids for opinions and value formation when it comes to sex. Sexual misinformation is therefore equally shared in the group. Parents at home and teachers in school feel equally inadequate or uneasy to discuss the topic of sex with youngsters. The problem mounts because the barkada (gang) has a more profound influence than parents do and they exert pressure and expect the adolescent to conform to the rest of them. In fact, female adolescents whose friends engage in sexual behavior were found to be more likely to do the same compared to those who do not associate with such peers. If the teen perceives her peers to look negatively at premarital sex, she was more likely to start sex at a later age. Numbers Statistics in the United States show that each year, almost 1 million teenage women? 10 percent of all women aged 15-19 and 19 percent of those who have had sexual intercourse? become pregnant and one-fourth of teenage mothers have a second child within two years of their first. In the Philippines, according to the 2002 Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Study by the University of the Philippines Population Institute (Uppi) and the Demographic Research and Development Foundation, 26 percent of our Filipino youth nationwide from ages 15 to 25 admitted to having a premarital sex experience. What? s worse is that 38 percent of our youth are already in a live-in arrangement. The 1998 National Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) reveals that 3. 6 million of our teenagers (that? s a whopping 5. 2 percent of our population! ) got pregnant. In 92 percent of these teens, the pregnancy was unplanned, and the majority, 78 percent, did not even use contraceptives the first time they had sex. Many of the youth are clueless that even on a single intercourse, they could wind up pregnant. Risks There are many reasons teen pregnancies should be avoided. Here? s a low down on the facts: ? Risk for malnutrition Teenage mothers tend to have poor eating habits and are less likely to take recommended daily multivitamins to maintain adequate nutrition during pregnancy. They are also more likely to smoke, drink or take drugs during pregnancy, which can cause health problems for the baby. ? Risk for inadequate prenatal care Teenage mothers are less likely to seek regular prenatal care which is essential for monitoring the growth of the fetus; keeping the mother? s weight in check; and advising the mother on nutrition and how she should take care of herself to ensure a healthy pregnancy. According to the American Medical Association, babies born to women who do not have regular prenatal care are 4 times more likely to die before the age of 1 year. ? Risk for abortion Unplanned pregnancies lead to a higher rate of abortions. In the United States, nearly 4 in 10 teen pregnancies (excluding those ending in miscarriages) are terminated by abortion. There were about 274,000 abortions among teens in 1996. In the Philippines, although abortion is illegal, it would shock you to know that we even have a higher abortion rate (25/1,000 women) compared to the United States where abortion is legal (23/1,000 women). For sure, there are more abortions that happen in our country that are not even reported. Backdoor abortions are resorted to with untrained ? hilots? with questionable sterility procedures, increasing the possibility for tetanus poisoning and other complications. Risk for fetal deaths Statistics of the Department of Health show that fetal deaths are more likely to happen to young mothers, and that babies born by them are likely to have low birth weight. ? Risk for acquiring cervical cancer The Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is a sexually-transmitted, w art-forming virus that has been implicated in causing cancer of the cervix. This is the most common cancer in women secondary to breast cancer. Women who are at increased risk for acquiring this are those who engage in sex before 18, have a pregnancy at or younger than 18, or have had at least 5 sexual partners, or have had a partner with at least 5 sexual partners. If you start sex at an early age, you have a higher likelihood of going through several sexual partners before you settle down, thus increasing your exposure to acquiring the virus and acquiring cervical cancer. The men can get genital warts from this virus and can certainly pass it on to their partners, thus increasing her risk for cervical cancer. Is that something you would want to gift to your wife with on your honeymoon? There is a way to test women (HPV Digene test) but no test for the man so you can? t know if you have it. Using the condom does not confer protection against acquiring this virus since the condom cannot cover the testes where the warts can grow and proliferate. Adolescent Pregnancy: Current Trends and Issues Abstract The prevention of unintended adolescent pregnancy is an important goal of the American Academy of Pediatrics and our society. Although adolescent pregnancy and birth rates have been steadily decreasing, many adolescents still become pregnant. Since the last statement on adolescent pregnancy was issued by the Academy in 1998, efforts to prevent adolescent pregnancy have increased, and new observations, technologies, and prevention effectiveness data have emerged. The purpose of this clinical report is to review current trends and issues related to adolescent pregnancy, update practitioners on this topic, and review legal and policy implications of concern to pediatricians. INTRODUCTION Adolescent pregnancy in the United States is a complex issue affecting families, health care professionals, educators, government officials, and youths themselves. Since 1998, when the last statement on this topic was issued by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), efforts to prevent adolescent pregnancy have increased,and new observations, technologies, and prevention effectiveness data have emerged. The purpose of this clinical report is to provide pediatricians with recent data on adolescent sexuality, contraceptive use, and childbearing as well as information about preventing adolescent pregnancy in their communities and in clinical practice. This report does not address diagnosis of pregnancy or management of the transition to prenatal care. Information about counseling pregnant youth is provided in the AAP policy statement â€Å"Counseling the Adolescent About Pregnancy Options,† and from the Alan Guttmacher Institute, and information about early prenatal care is available from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists SEXUAL ACTIVITY The proportion of American adolescents who are sexually active has decreased in recent years; however, rates are still high enough to warrant concern. Currently, more than 45% of high school females and 48% of high school males have had sexual intercourse. The average age of first intercourse is 17 years for girls and 16 years for boys. However, approximately one fourth of all youth report having had intercourse by 15 years of age. Younger teenagers are especially vulnerable to coercive and nonconsensual sex. Involuntary sexual activity has been reported by 74% of sexually active girls younger than 14 years and 60% of those younger than 15 years. Sexually active youth, similar to older unmarried adults, usually have monogamous, short-lived relationships with successive partners. Current surveys indicate that 11% of high school females and 17% of high school males report having had 4 or more sexual partners. In addition to intercourse, many adolescents report having had oral sex or engaging in kissing, touching, or other mutual stimulation; however, data on these other behaviors are reported rarely. There are several predictors of sexual intercourse during the early adolescent years, including early pubertal development, a history of sexual abuse, poverty, lack of attentive and nurturing parents, cultural and family patterns of early sexual experience, lack of school or career goals, substance abuse, and poor school performance or dropping out of school. Factors associated with a delay in the initiation of sexual intercourse include living with both parents in a stable family environment, regular attendance at places of worship, and higher family income. Recently, parental supervision, setting expectations, and parent/child â€Å"connectedness† have been recognized as clearly associated with decreasing risky sexual behavior and other risky behaviors among adolescents. CONTRACEPTIVE USE Despite increasing use of contraception by adolescents at the time of first intercourse, 50% of adolescent pregnancies occur within the first 6 months of initial sexual intercourse. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic and public health education efforts have led more adolescents to use barrier contraceptives; nonetheless, in 2003, among high school students who reported that they had ever had sexual intercourse, only 63% reported having used a condom the last time they had intercourse. Despite HIV prevention guidelines, initiation of prescription contraceptives is often accompanied by decreased condom use, especially among adolescents who do not perceive themselves to be at risk of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Many adolescents who currently report using prescription contraceptives delayed seeing a clinician for a contraceptive prescription until they had been sexually active for 1 year or more. Adolescent women, similar to adult women, have changed contraceptive methods in recent years, with decreases in pill use and increases in injectable contraceptive use. Factors associated with more consistent contraceptive use among sexually active youth include academic success in school, anticipation of a satisfying future, and being involved in a stable relationship with a sexual partner. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention unambiguously recommends both abstinence and the use of barrier contraceptives for individuals who choose to be sexually active. However, some groups continue to question the effectiveness of condoms. Youth who participated in programs that provided information about abstinence, condoms, and/or contraception; who were engaged in one-on-one discussions about their own behavior; who were given clear messages about sex and condom or contraceptive use; and who were provided condoms or contraceptives have been found to increase consistent condom and contraception use without increasing sexual activity. TRENDS IN ADOLESCENT CHILDBEARING Each year, approximately 900000 teenagers become pregnant in the United States, and despite decreasing rates, more than 4 in 10 adolescent girls have been pregnant at least once before 20 years of age. Most of these pregnancies are among older teenagers (ie, those 18 or 19 years of age). Approximately 51% of adolescent pregnancies end in live births, 35% end in induced abortion, and 14% result in miscarriage or stillbirth. Historically, the highest adolescent birth rates in the United States were during the 1950s and 1960s, before the legalization of abortion and the development of many of the current forms of contraception. After the legalization of abortion in 1973, birth rates for US females 15 to 19 years of age decreased sharply until 1986. Rates increased steadily until 1991; since then, the birth rate among teenagers has decreased every year since 1991. Since 1991, the rate has decreased 35% for 15- to 17-year-olds and 20% for 18- to 19-year-olds. Rates for 10- to 14-year-olds were 1. 4 per 1000 in 1992 and have gradually decreased to 0. 7 per 1000 in 2002. Although birth rates have been decreasing steadily for white and black teenagers in recent years, 1996 is the first year that birth rates decreased for Hispanic teenagers; Hispanic adolescents also have had the highest overall birth rates and smallest decreases in recent years. Once a teenager has had 1 infant, she is at increased risk of having another. Approximately 25% of adolescent births are not first births. ADOLESCENT PARENTS AND THEIR PARTNERS Adolescent childbearing is usually inconsistent with mainstream societal demands for attaining adulthood through education, work experience, and financial stability. Poverty is correlated significantly with adolescent pregnancy in the United States. Although 38% of adolescents live in poor or low-income families, as many as 83% of adolescents who give birth and 61% who have abortions are from poor or low-income families. At least one third of parenting adolescents (both males and females) are themselves products of adolescent pregnancy. Although it is difficult to establish causal links between childhood maltreatment and subsequent adolescent pregnancy, in some studies as many as 50% to 60% of those who become pregnant in early or midadolescence have a history of childhood sexual or physical abuse. The problem of adolescent pregnancy is often assumed to be both an adolescent and an adult problem, because many partners of childbearing youth are adults. The percentage of adolescent pregnancies in which the father is an adult is unclear; studies report a range from 7% to 67%. Adult men having sexual relationships with adolescents is problematic, because many of these relationships may be abusive or coercive. Adolescents who have sex with older men are also more likely to contract HIV infection or other STD. Although more than two thirds of adolescent girls' sexual partners are the same age or within a few years older and the sexual activity is consensual in nature, some partners are more than 4 years older. Sexual relationships between adults and minors may be coercive or exploitative, with detrimental consequences for the health of both the teenager and her children. Although some states and local jurisdictions have changed statutory rape laws and their enforcement, mandated reporting of all sexual activity as statutory rape or as child abuse has not been effective at changing behavior, does not allow for clinical judgment, and has the effect of deterring some of the adolescents most in need from seeking health care. Adolescent fathers are similar to adolescent mothers; they are more likely than their peers who are not fathers to have poor academic performance, higher school drop-out rates, limited financial resources, and decreased income potential. Some fathers disappear from the lives of their adolescent partners and children, but many others attempt to stay involved, and many young fathers struggle to be involved in their children's lives. Current programs in adolescent pregnancy and parenting are exploring ways to r